Pyrite

The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is an iron sulfide with the formula FeS₂. This mineral’s metallic lustre and pale-to-normal, brass-yellow hue have earned it the nickname fool’s gold because of its resemblance to gold. The color has also led to the nicknames brass, brazzle and Brazil, primarily used to refer to pyrite found in coal.

Pyrite is the most common of the sulfide minerals. The name pyrite is derived from the Greek πυρίτης (puritēs), “of fire” or “in fire”, from πύρ (pur), “fire”. In ancient Roman times, this name was applied to several types of stone that would create sparks when struck against steel; Pliny the Elder described one of them as being brassy, almost certainly a reference to what we now call pyrite. By Georgius Agricola’s time, the term had become a generic term for all of the sulfide minerals.

Pyrite is usually found associated with other sulfides or oxides in quartz veins, sedimentary rock, and metamorphic rock, as well as in coal beds, and as a replacement mineral in fossils. Despite being nicknamed fool’s gold, pyrite is sometimes found in association with small quantities of gold. Gold and arsenic occur as a coupled substitution in the pyrite structure. In the Carlin, Nevada, gold deposit, arsenian pyrite contains up to 0.37 wt% gold. Auriferous pyrite is a valuable ore of gold.

Weathering and release of sulfate

Pyrite exposed to the atmosphere during mining and excavation reacts with oxygen and water to form sulfate, resulting in acid mine drainage. This acidity results from the action of Acidithiobacillus bacteria, which generate their energy by oxidizing ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) to ferric iron (Fe³⁺) using oxygen. The ferric iron in turn attacks the pyrite to produce ferrous iron and sulfate. The ferrous iron is then available for oxidation by the bacterium; this cycle continues until the pyrite is depleted.

Iron pyrite oxidation is sufficiently exothermic that underground coal mines in high-sulfur coal seams have occasionally had serious problems with spontaneous combustion in the mined-out areas of the mine. The solution is to hermetically seal the mined-out areas to exclude oxygen.

In modern coal mines, limestone dust is sprayed onto the exposed coal surfaces to reduce the hazard of dust explosions. This has the secondary benefit of neutralizing the acid released by pyrite oxidation and therefore slowing the oxidation cycle described above, thus reducing the likelihood of spontaneous combustion. In the long term, however, oxidation continues, and the hydrated sulfates formed may exert crystallization pressure that can expand cracks in the rock and lead eventually to roof fall.

Building stone containing pyrite tends to stain brown as the pyrite oxidizes. This problem appears to be significantly worse if any marcasite is also present. The presence of pyrite in the aggregate used to make concrete can lead to severe deterioration as the pyrite oxidizes. In early 2009, problems with Chinese drywall imported into the United States after Hurricane Katrina were attributed to oxidation of pyrite.

Pyrite_from_Ampliación_spain

Uses

Pyrite enjoyed brief popularity in the 16th and 17th centuries as a source of ignition in early firearms, most notably the wheellock, where the cock held a lump of pyrite against a circular file to strike the sparks needed to fire the gun.

Pyrite has been used since classical times to manufacture copperas, or iron sulfate. Iron pyrite was heaped up and allowed to weather as described above (an early form of heap leaching). The acidic runoff from the heap was then boiled with iron to produce iron sulfate. In the 15^th century, oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid) was manufactured either from copperas or by burning sulfur to sulfur dioxide and then converting that to sulfuric acid. By the 19th century, the dominant method was to burn iron pyrite. Pyrite remains in commercial use for the production of sulfur dioxide, for use in such applications as the paper industry, and in the manufacture of sulfuric acid. Thermal decomposition of pyrite into FeS and elemental sulfur starts at 550 °C; at around 700 °C p_S2 is about 1 atm.

Pyrite is a semiconductor material with band gap of 0.95 eV.

During the early years of the 20th century, pyrite was used as a mineral detector in radio receivers, and is still used by ‘crystal radio’ hobbyists. Until the vacuum tube matured, the crystal detector was the most sensitive and dependable detector available- with considerable variation between mineral types and even individual samples within a particular type of mineral. The most sensitive mineral was galena, which was very sensitive also to mechanical vibration, and easily knocked off the sensitive point; the most stable were perikon mineral pairs; and midway between was the pyrites detector, which is approximately as sensitive as a modern 1N34A diode detector.

Pyrite has been proposed as an abundant inexpensive material in low cost photovoltaic solar panels.Synthetic iron sulfide is used with copper sulfide to create the experimental photovoltaic material.^[21]

Pyrite is used to make marcasite jewellery (incorrectly termed marcasite). Marcasite jewellery, made from small faceted pieces of pyrite, often set in silver, was popular in the Victorian era.

pyrite_cubes

Amphibole (Hornblende)

Amphibole (pronounced /ˈæmfɨboʊl/) defines an important group of generally dark-colored rock-forming inosilicate minerals, composed of double chain SiO₄ tetrahedra, linked at the vertices and generally containing ions of iron and/or magnesium in their structures. Amphiboles crystallize into two crystal systems, monoclinic and orthorhombic. In chemical composition and general characteristics they are similar to the pyroxenes. The chief differences from pyroxenes are that (i) amphiboles contain essential hydroxyl (OH) or halogen (F, Cl) and (ii) the basic structure is a double chain of tetrahedra (as opposed to the single chain structure of pyroxene). Most apparent, in hand specimens, is that amphiboles form oblique cleavage planes (at around 120 degrees), whereas pyroxenes have cleavage angles of approximately 90 degrees. Amphiboles are also specifically less dense than the corresponding pyroxenes. In optical characteristics, many amphiboles are distinguished by their stronger pleochroism and by the smaller angle of extinction (Z angle c) on the plane of symmetry. Amphiboles are the primary constituent of amphibolites.

Amphiboles are minerals of either igneous or metamorphic origin; in the former case occurring as constituents (hornblende) of igneous rocks, such as granite, diorite, andesite and others. Those of metamorphic origin include examples such as those developed in limestones by contact metamorphism (tremolite) and those formed by the alteration of other ferromagnesian minerals (hornblende). Pseudomorphs of amphibole after pyroxene are known as uralite.

The name amphibole (Greek αμφιβολος – amphibolos meaning ‘ambiguous’) was used by RJ Haüy to include tremolite, actinolite, tourmaline and hornblende. The group was so named by Haüy in allusion to the protean variety, in composition and appearance, assumed by its minerals. This term has since been applied to the whole group. Numerous sub-species and varieties are distinguished, the more important of which are tabulated below in two series. The formulae of each will be seen to be built on the general double-chain silicate formula RSi₄O₁₁.

Chemical formulae

Orthorhombic series

• Anthophyllite (Mg,Fe)₇Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂

Monoclinic series

• Tremolite Ca₂Mg₅Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Actinolite Ca₂(Mg,Fe)₅Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Cummingtonite Fe₂Mg₅Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Grunerite Fe₇Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Hornblende Ca₂(Mg,Fe,Al)₅(Al,Si)₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Glaucophane Na₂(Mg,Fe)₃Al₂Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Riebeckite Na₂Fe²⁺₃Fe³⁺₂Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Arfvedsonite Na₃Fe²⁺₄Fe³⁺Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Crocidolite Na₂Fe²⁺₃Fe³⁺₂Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Richterite Na₂Ca(Mg,Fe)₅Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
• Pargasite NaCa₂Mg₃Fe²⁺Si₆Al₃O₂₂(OH)₂

Descriptions

On account of the wide variations in chemical composition, the different members vary considerably in properties and general appearance.

Anthophyllite occurs as brownish, fibrous or lamellar masses with hornblende in mica-schist at Kongsberg in Norway and some other localities. An aluminous related species is known as gedrite and a deep green Russian variety containing little iron as kupfferite.

Hornblende is an important constituent of many igneous rocks. It is also an important constituent of amphibolites formed by metamorphism of basalt.

Actinolite is an important and common member of the monoclinic series, forming radiating groups of acicular crystals of a bright green or greyish-green color. It occurs frequently as a constituent of greenschists. The name (from Greek ακτις/aktis, a ‘ray’ and λιθος/lithos, a ’stone’) is a translation of the old German word Strahlstein (radiated stone).

Glaucophane, crocidolite, riebeckite and arfvedsonite form a somewhat special group of alkali-amphiboles. The first two are blue fibrous minerals, with glaucophane occurring in blueschists and crocidolite (blue asbestos) in ironstone formations, both resulting from dynamo-metamorphic processes. The latter two are dark green minerals, which occur as original constituents of igneous rocks rich in sodium, such as nepheline-syenite and phonolite.

Pargasite is a rare magnesium-rich amphibole with essential sodium, usually found in ultramafic rocks. For instance, it occurs in uncommon mantle xenoliths, carried up by kimberlite. It is hard, dense, black and usually idiomorphic, with a red-brown pleochroism in petrographic thin section.

Amphibole compositions

Amphibole compositions in the system Mg7Si8O22(OH)2 (anthophyllite)–Fe7Si8O22(OH)2 (grunerite)–“Ca7Si8O22(OH)2.” The general compositional fields are outlined, and coexisting amphibole compositions are shown by tie lines between the actinolite field and the anthophyllite-grunerite field.

feldspar

Feldspars (KAlSi₃O₈ – NaAlSi₃O₈ – CaAl₂Si₂O₈) are a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals which make up as much as 60% of the Earth’s crust.

Feldspars crystallize from magma in both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks, as veins, and are also present in many types of metamorphic rock. Rock formed almost entirely of calcic plagioclase feldspar (see below) is known as anorthosite. Feldspars are also found in many types of sedimentary rock.

Potassium_feldspar

Etymology

Feldspar is derived from the German Feld, “field”, and Spath, “a rock that does not contain ore”. “Feldspathic” refers to materials that contain feldspar. The alternative spelling, felspar, has now largely fallen out of use.

feldspar

Compositions

This group of minerals consists of framework or tectosilicates. Compositions of major elements in common feldspars can be expressed in terms of three endmembers:

Potassium-Feldspar (K-spar) endmember KAlSi₃O₈

Albite endmember NaAlSi₃O₈

Anorthite endmember CaAl₂Si₂O₈

Solid solutions between K-feldspar and albite are called alkali feldspar.Solid solutions between albite and anorthite are called plagioclase, or more properly plagioclase feldspar. Only limited solid solution occurs between K-feldspar and anorthite, and in the two other solid solutions, immiscibility occurs at temperatures common in the crust of the earth. Albite is considered both a plagioclase and alkali feldspar. In addition to albite, barium feldspars are also considered both alkali and plagioclase feldspars. Barium feldspars form as the result of the replacement of potassium feldspar.

alkali_feldspar

Alkali feldspars

The alkali feldspars are as follows:

• orthoclase (monoclinic), — KAlSi₃O₈
• sanidine (monoclinic)—(K,Na)AlSi₃O₈
• microcline (triclinic) — KAlSi₃O₈
• anorthoclase (triclinic) — (Na,K)AlSi₃O₈

Sanidine is stable at the highest temperatures, and microcline at the lowest.Perthite is a typical texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. The perthitic textures in the alkali feldspars of many granites can be seen with the naked eye. Microperthitic textures in crystals are visible using a light microscope, whereas cryptoperthitic textures can be seen only with an electron microscope.

feldspar_map

Plagioclase feldspars

The plagioclase feldspars are triclinic. The plagioclase series follows (with percent anorthite in parentheses):

• albite (0 to 10) — NaAlSi₃O₈
• oligoclase (10 to 30) — (Na,Ca)(Al,Si)AlSi₂O₈
• andesine (30 to 50) — NaAlSi₃O₈ — CaAl₂Si₂O₈
• labradorite (50 to 70) — (Ca,Na)Al(Al,Si)Si₂O₈
• bytownite (70 to 90) — (NaSi,CaAl)AlSi₂O₈
• anorthite (90 to 100) — CaAl₂Si₂O₈

Intermediate compositions of plagioclase feldspar also may exsolve to two feldspars of contrasting composition during cooling, but diffusion is much slower than in alkali feldspar, and the resulting two-feldspar intergrowths typically are too fine-grained to be visible with optical microscopes. The immiscibility gaps in the plagioclase solid solution are complex compared to the gap in the alkali feldspars. The play of colours visible in some feldspar of labradorite composition is due to very fine-grained exsolution lamellae.

lunar_feldspar

Barium feldspars

The barium feldspars are monoclinic and comprise the following:

• celsian — BaAl₂Si₂O₈
• hyalophane — (K,Na,Ba)(Al,Si)₄O₈

Feldspars can form clay minerals through chemical weathering.

Uses

• Feldspar is a common raw material in the production of ceramics and geopolymers.
• Feldspars are used for thermoluminescence dating and optical dating in earth sciences and archaeology
• Feldspar is one of several abrasive ingredients in Bon Ami, a brand of household cleaner in the USA.

In 2005, Italy was the top producer of feldspar with almost one fifth of world share, followed by Turkey, China and Thailand—reports the International Monetary Fund.

Almandine, also known incorrectly as almandite, is a species of mineral belonging to the garnet Group. The name is a corruption of alabandicus, which is the name applied by Pliny the Elder to a stone found or worked at Alabanda, a town in Caria in Asia Minor. Almandine is an iron alumina garnet, of deep red color, inclining to purple. It is frequently cut with a convex face, or en cabochon, and is then known as carbuncle. Viewed through the spectroscope in a strong light, it generally shows three characteristic absorption bands. Almandine is one end-member of a mineral solid solution series, with the other end member being the garnet pyrope. The almandine crystal formula is: Fe₃Al₂(SiO₄)₃. Magnesium substitutes for the iron with increasingly pyrope-rich composition.

almandine

Almandine occurs rather abundantly in the gem-gravels of Sri Lanka, whence it has sometimes been called Ceylon-ruby. When the color inclines to a violet tint, the stone is often called Syrian garnet, a name said to be taken from Syriam, an ancient town of Pegu. Large deposits of fine almandine-garnets were found, some years ago, in the Northern Territory of Australia, and were at first taken for rubies and thus they were known in trade for some time afterwards as Australian rubies.

Almandine

Almandine is widely distributed. Fine rhombic dodecahedra occur in the schistose rocks of the Zillertal, in Tyrol, and are sometimes cut and polished. An almandine in which the ferrous oxide is replaced partly by magnesia is found at Luisenfeld in German East Africa. In the United States there are many localities which yield almandine. Fine crystals of almandine embedded in mica-schist occur near Fort Wrangell in Alaska. The coarse varieties of almandine are often crushed for use as an abrasive agent.

Tufa towers at Mono Lake, California.

Tufa is a soft, friable and porous calcite rock. It is a calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) deposit that forms by chemical/biological precipitation from bodies of water with a high dissolved calcium content. Calcareous tufa is not to be confused with tuff, a hard volcanic rock that is also sometimes called tufa.

Tufa forming the Trona Pinnacles, California.

Tufa deposition occurs in seven known ways:

1. Mechanical precipitation by wave action against the shore. This form of tufa can be useful for identifying the shoreline of extinct lakes (for example in the Lake Lahontan region).
2. Precipitation from supersaturated hot spring water entering cooler lake water.
3. Precipitation in lake bottom sediments which are fed by hot springs from below.
4. Precipitation from calcium-bearing spring water flowing into an alkaline lake.
5. Precipitation throughout a lake as the lake water evaporates, leaving the lake supersaturated in calcium.
6. Through the agency of algae. Microbial influence is often vital to tufa precipitation and may be involved in the other methods listed.
7. Precipitation from cold water springs (for example in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains near Hinton, Alberta).

Tufa is common in many parts of the world. There are some prominent towers of tufa at Mono Lake and Trona Pinnacles in California, USA, formed by the fourth method mentioned above whilst submerged and subsequently exposed by falling water levels. Tufa is also common in Armenia and Great Britain.

Jasper is an opaque, impure variety of silica, usually red, yellow or brown in color. This mineral breaks with a smooth surface, and is used for ornamentation or as a gemstone. It can be highly polished and is used for vases, seals, and at one time for snuff boxes. When the colors are in stripes or bands, it is called striped or banded jasper. Jaspilite is a banded iron formation rock that often has distinctive bands of jasper. Jasper is basically chert which owes its red color to iron(III) inclusions.

Etymology and historical/mythical usage

The name means “spotted stone”, and is derived from Anglo-French jaspre, from Old French jaspe, from Latin iaspidem, the accusative of iaspis, from Greek iaspis, via a Semitic language (cf. Hebrew yashepheh, Akkadian yashupu), ultimately from Persian yashp.

The word yashepheh in the Masoretic text of Exodus 28:20, referring to a stone in the Hoshen, is thus reflected in the Septuagint by the word Iaspis, and usually translated into English as Jasper. Despite the most common form of Jasper being red, scholars think that the yashepheh here actually refers to a green form of Jasper – which was very rare, and so highly prized; the Greeks used Iaspis to refer to the green form, while the red form simply fell under the term Sard – which just means red. Rebbenu Bachya argues that this stone represents the tribe of Benjamin, but there is actually a wide range of views among traditional sources about which tribe the stone refers to.

It is described in the Book of Revelation (21:11) as follows: “It shone with the glory of God, and its brilliance was like that of a very precious jewel, like a jasper, clear as crystal.”

Types of jasper

Jasper can appear as an opaque rock of shades of red due to mineral impurities. Patterns can arise from the formation process and from flow patterns in the sediment or volcanic ash that was saturated with silica to form jasper, yielding bands or swirls in the rock.

Jasper may be permeated by dendritic minerals providing the appearance of vegetative growths. The jasper may have been fractured and/or distorted after formation, later rebonding into discontinuous patterns or filling with another material. Heat or environmental factors may have created surface rinds (such as varnish) or interior stresses leading to fracturing.

A brown jasper that occurs as nodules in the Libyan desert and in the Nile valley is known as Egyptian jasper or Egyptian pebble.

Picture jaspers simultaneously exhibit several of these variations (such as banding, flow patterns, dendrites or color variations) resulting in what appear to be scenes or images in a cut section. Spherical flow patterns produce a distinctive orbicular appearance. Complex mixes of impurities produce color variations. Healed fractures produce brecciated jasper. Examples of this can be seen at Llanddwyn Island.

The history of Biggs Jasper, DESCHUTES PICTURE JASPER, Oregon.